血管内导管相关性血流感染预防与诊治指南(2025)
指南制定流程
1.1指南制定协作组及制定流程:本指南由中华医学会重症医学分会发起,由来自全国重症医学、卫生统计学、循证医学、医学信息学等学科的23名专家组成指南编写工作组,制定指南写作工作流程,并于国际实践指南注册与透明化平台完成注册(注册号:PREPARE-2024CN873)。工作组通过启动、提出临床问题、文献检索、筛选文献、Meta分析及循证医学证据汇总、初步形成推荐条目、工作组函审、工作组远程及面对面会议、修稿,经重症医学分会常委会投票表决等步骤,最终定稿。
1.2H临床问题的提出:本指南的适用范围集中在ICU留置中心血管内导管的成人患者,内容主要涉及血管内导管穿刺部位选择和穿刺方法、导管选择、导管的管理,以及CLABSI的预防、诊断和治疗。工作组首先对上一版指南进行回顾,保留了重要的临床问题:同时,工作组结合国内外最新研究进展和相关指南及共识,经过讨论,增加了与本指南相关高优先级的新临床问题。所有临床问题均按照“PICO原则”,即人群(population)干预(intervention)、对照(control)结局(outcome)的形式提出
1.3文献检索及筛选策略:工作组根据PICO原则,对每个临床问题进行了系统地文献检索。检索数据库涵盖PubMed、Embase、Ovid、Cochrane、WebofScience、万方、知网、维普。检索关键词包括导管相关性血流感染、菌血症、catheterrelatedbloodstreaminfection、central line associated blood stream infection、bacteremia等。检索时间限定为1990年1月至2024年2月。发表文献语言限定为中文及英文。未发表文献数据不纳入本指南作为证据汇总。本指南
文献筛选遵循系统评价和Meta分析的首选报告规范 ( preferred reporting items for systematic reviews andmeta-analyses,PRISMA),按照PRISMA官方推荐流程进行文献识别、筛选和纳入。工作组在检索及筛选文献时以成人重症患者为主,未纳入儿童相关的研究,因此本指南的推荐意见仅适用于成人重症患者,若需进一步扩展到儿童范围,仍需进一步检索儿童相关文献,并对循证医学证据进一步评估。
1.4证据和推荐等级的方法和原则:按照推荐分级的评估、制定与评价(GradingofRecommendationsAssessment, Development, and Evaluation, GRADE),对证据质量进行从高到极低的评估,以决定推荐意见的强度(表1~2)。
||表1指南的证据质量评估|| |---|---|---| |因素||评估内容| |基于|①高:RCT,质量升高2级的观察性研究;|| |方法学|②中:研究质量降低1级的RCT或质量升高|| ||1级的观察性研究;|| ||③低:研究质量降低2级的RCT或观察性研究;|| ||④极低:研究质量降低3级的RCT,质量降低1级的|| ||观察性研究、病例系列观察、专家意见或其他证据|| |可能降低|①可获得的RCT方法学特征提示|| |证据强度|具有偏倚的高度可能性;|| |的因素|②结果不一致,包括亚组分析的问题|| ||③间接证据(不同人群、干预、对照、预后);|| |||| ||③具有报告偏倚的高度可能性|| |可能增加|①效应值较大时证据质量升高1级(直接证据,|| |证据强度|RR>2且无可疑的混杂因素);|| |的因素|②效应值很大时证据质量升高2级(直接证据,|| ||RR>5且不存在影响有效性的混杂因素);|| ||③存在剂量-效应关系||
注:RCT为随机对照试验,RR为相对危险度
||表2决定指南的推荐等级为强或弱的因素| |---|---| |需考虑的问题|推荐过程| | 是否具有高或 中等质量证据 |证据质量越高,越可能成为强推荐| |风险/获益及|| |负担之间的| 干预组与非干预组结果之间差异越大,差异的 确定性越好,越可能成为强推荐;净获益越小, | |确定性|获益的确定性越小,越可能成为弱推荐| ||| ||越可能成为强推荐| | 和相似性 取得期待获益 |干预组成本与对照组成本相比越低(例如| |的成本|| ||消耗的资源越少),越可能成为强推荐|
证据等级:GRADE方法学基于5个方面进行证据质量评估,即偏倚风险、研究结果不一致、间接证据、结果不精确、报告偏倚。证据质量的GRADE评估标准见表1基于RCT得出的高质量证据,可
因表1中降级因素降低证据质量等级;观察性(非 随机)研究得出的低质量证据,可因表1中升级因 素提高证据质量等级。
推荐等级:GRADE方法学将推荐等级分为强推荐或弱推荐,影响推荐强度的因素见表2。协作组根据证据质量等级、干预风险/获益比、结果的确定性、资源可及性、干预的可行性和可接受性进行推荐等级制定。当明确显示一项干预措施利大于弊时,协作组将其列为强推荐;当一项干预措施可能利大于弊,但又存在一些不确定因素(如证据质量低)时,协作组将其列为弱推荐。当获益或风险证据难以用GRADE方法学来总结或评估时,协作组将经过讨论形成最佳实践声明(bestpracticestatement,BPS)。BPS的制定标准见表3。
||表3扌指南的BPS标准| |---|---| |疗号|制定标准| ||这个陈述是清楚和可执行的吗?| ||这个推荐是必要的吗?| ||净获益(或损害)是明确的吗?| ||证据难以收集和总结吗?| ||推荐理由是明确的吗?| ||比正式的GRADE方法更好吗?|
注:BPS为最佳实践声明;GRADE方法即推荐分级的评估、制定与评价
1.5专家投票:工作组通过面对面会议或线上会议对每条推荐意见进行讨论后,形成推荐意见的草案。随后,所有工作组成员通过问卷星系统对每条推荐意见进行同意、反对或弃权的匿名投票。指南组成员投票率需达到 $75\%$ 且支持率达 $80\%$ ,该推荐意见将被接受。在投票结束后仍未能达成共识者,投票者可以提出反馈以供工作组考虑修正或弃用。
2血管内导管相关性血流感染诊断
2.1问题1:临床疑诊血管内导管相关性血流感染时,如何采集标本?
当临床疑似CLABSI时,需规范采集血标本两套4瓶(需氧瓶、厌氧瓶各1套),一套经皮穿刺采集静脉血,另一套经导管接头采集静脉血。若需拔除导管,则拔除时避免与患者皮肤接触,在无菌条件下剪下导管尖端约 $5~\mathrm{{cm}}$ ,置于干燥的无菌容器中送检,并进行 Maki半定量法培养l12」。对于非隧道式CVC、PICC、隧道式CVC及IVAP,建议从疑似CLABSI患者采集至少两套血培养,其中至少一套是通过皮肤穿刺采集的外周静脉血,另外一套是通过导管接头或者IVAP采集的导管血[13];除送检
IVAP尖端外,将港体储液器一起送检可能会提高CLABSI诊断的准确性。若多腔导管,建议每腔分别留取血培养。注意导管血需与外周血在同一时间采集,并附上标签以示区别14
研究表明, $23\%$ 的导管相关感染患者存在局部感染症状和体征,可表现为穿刺点周围 $2~\mathrm{cm}$ 以因的红斑、硬结、发热和疼痛、压痛或脓性分泌物;隧道或囊袋感染可表现为复杂的局部感染,红斑、硬结距穿刺点可超过 $2~\mathrm{cm}$ ,脓性分泌物,皮肤坏死等;可使用干燥拭子采集局部脓性分泌物或渗液标本,进行革兰染色和培养,同时经皮穿刺采集外周静脉血送检培养15]
2.2问题2:微生物学诊断
尽管分子诊断技术不断进步,但血培养仍是诊断CLABSI的“金标准”。通常血培养每瓶留取 $8\sim$ $10~\mathrm{mL}$ 血液,当每瓶血液少于 $5~\mathrm{mL}$ 时,可能会出现假阴性或微生物生长延迟:当每瓶血液超过 $10~\mathrm{mL}$ 时,可能会因为白细胞产生大量的本底 $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ 而造成培养结果呈假阳性。建议血培养标本在采集后 $2\textrm{h}$ 内(最迟不超过 $4\mathrm{~h~}$ )送至实验室,室温( $(20\mathrm{~\sim~}25\ \mathrm{~\textdegree~}$ 运送,运送条件须符合生物安全要求。如果运送延迟,应置于室温保存。即使在理想的消毒条件下,也行万有 $3\%\sim5\%$ 血培养中混有污染菌,它们来源于皮肤或环境,对于此类血培养阳性结果需结合患者临床症状及实验室指标综合评估16]
目前用于临床实验室血流感染检测的技术除了传统的培养技术外,还包括分子生物学技术,如核酸杂交技术、核酸扩增及DNA序列分析、基因芯片和基质辅助激光解吸电离飞行时间质谱检测等。结合患者流行病学和临床表现,临床医师可基于可疑的病原体种类,选择适宜的病原学检查方法,并采集相应的临床标本送检。实验室应结合不同检测方法的性能特征、检测周转时间(turnaroundtime,TAT)、影响因素等进行方法学评价,并在临床沟通中向临床医师推荐检验项目优化选择。对于疑似CLABSI患者,建议多种检测技术联合应用,以提高病原体检出率及患者生存率,并减少相关救治的卫生经济学负拍11,17]
2.3问题3:诊断标准
CLABSI目前更多的是排他性诊断,是指置入血管内导管或者拔除血管内导管 $48\textrm{h}$ 内出现的细菌或真菌血症,并伴有发热( ${>}38~\mathrm{^\circC}$ )寒颤或低血压等表现,除血管内导管外没有其他明确的感染源;
外周静脉血培养显示细菌或真菌阳性,或者从导管端和外周血培养出相同种类、相同药敏结果的致病菌18-19]
3血管内导管相关性血流感染预防
3.1问题1:如何合理选择CVC的留置部位?
推荐意见:锁骨下静脉是留置CVC的首选部位(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:CVC最常选择的置管部位包括锁骨下静脉、颈内静脉和股静脉。穿刺部位对CLABSI风险的影响与该部位的皮肤菌群密度有关。与锁骨下静脉相比,股静脉和颈内静脉导管置入点更早出现细菌定植,可增加CLABSI的风险。
锁骨下静脉虽然定位难度大,穿刺发生气胸的风险高,但皮下隧道长,易于固定,导管留置部位活动度低,不易因敷料移位而受到污染,且皮肤菌群密度最低,是最佳的CVC穿刺部位。颈内静脉表浅、定位方便,但颈部的活动容易导致颈内静脉穿刺点敷料移位、脱落,与微生物接触的可能性增加。股静脉置管毗邻会阴部,受排泄物污染可能性大,且会阴和腹股沟区分泌物及皮肤褶皱多,细菌定植率和感染发生率高。近年来随着超声引导的普及,腋静脉穿刺逐渐增多,在预防CLABSI风险方面,其与锁骨下静脉类似,同时可降低气胸的风险,但缺乏大样本研究证据。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共20项研究比较厂不同穿刺部位对重症患者CVC相关感染风险的影响,其中8项为RCT研究,12项为观察性研究。2009年Timsit等2的1项多中心随机试验(3SITES)结果显示,股静脉置管组和颈内静脉置管组发生血流感染的风险显著高于锁骨下静脉置管组,但锁骨下静脉穿刺发生气胸的风险更高。2017年Arvaniti等²1的1项荟萃分析结果显示,颈内静脉与锁骨下静脉导管相关性血流感染的风险相当,股静脉感染风险高于锁骨下静脉【相对危险度(relativerisk, $R R)\!=\!2.44 $ $95\%$ 可信区间( $95\%$ confidence interval, $95\%C I) $ $1.25\sim4.75 $ $I^{2}{=}61\%$ ]颈内静脉感染风险低于股静脉( $R R{=}0.55 $ $95\%C I $ $0.34\sim0.89$ $I^{2}{=}61\%$
本指南分别对8项 RCT研究[20,22-28]和12项观察性研究[29-40]进行了荟萃分析,比较了不同穿刺部位对重症患者发生CLABSI的影响,结果显示,锁骨下静脉导管相关性血流感染的风险均低于颈内静脉和股静脉(RCT研究: $R R{=}0.51 $ $95\%C I$
$0.30\sim0.87 $ $I^{2}{=}46\%$ ;观察性研究: $R R\!=\!0.65$ $95\%C I $ $I^{2}{=}55\%$
3.2问题2:血液净化治疗如何选择血管内导管留置部位?
推荐意见:血液净化治疗留置导管首选右侧颈内静脉,其次为股静脉(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:经右侧颈内静脉留置血液净化导管的感染发生率低,相较左侧颈内静脉没有损伤胸导管的风险,且不影响患者下床康复活动、距离右心房近、不易贴壁、适合长期留置,留置时间一般不超过4周。但对于ICU需要行血液净化的重症患者,往往需经颈内静脉和锁骨下静脉来监测中心静脉压(centralvenouspressure,CVP)、快速补液、静脉营养泵入血管活性药物,还要保留其他生命支持设备,如ECMO的置管位置。股静脉由于穿刺难度小,血肿等并发症发生率低且容易处理,无气胸风险,是短时间血液净化穿刺置管的选择之一,留置时间一般不超过2周。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,有6项研究比较了导管穿刺部位选择与血液净化相关性感染的风险,其中1项为RCT研究,5项为观察性研究。RCT研究显示,股静脉置管648例,发生感染相关事件87例;非股静脉置管626例,发生感染相关事件81例,二者差异无统计学意义( $95\%C I $ $0.80\!\sim\!1.35$ $P{=}0.45\,,I^{2}{=}0\%\,)^{\perp}$ 41」。本指南对5项观察性研究42-46]进行了荟萃分析,结果提示,股静脉置管的感染风险高于非股静脉置管,差异具有统计学意义( $95\%C I$ $\scriptstyle P=0.008 $ $I^{2}{=}32\%$ )。将以上研究数据汇总,结果显示股静脉置管组感染相关事件发生率明显高于非股静脉置管组( $95\%C I$ $P{=}0.02\,,I^{2}{=}38\%\,),$
3.3问题3:ECMO治疗如何选择血管内导管留置部位立?
推荐意见1:需根据ECM0辅助方式决定血管内导管穿刺部位,静脉-动脉ECMO(veno-arterialECMO,VA-ECMO)推荐外周置管,首选左/右股静脉和左/右股动脉(BPS)。
推荐意见2:静脉-静脉ECMO(veno-venousECMO,VV-ECMO)推荐右股静脉-右颈内静脉置管,单管双腔置管首选右颈内静脉(BPS)。
推荐意见3:静脉-静脉-动脉ECMO(venovenous-arterialECMO,VVA-ECMO)和静脉-动脉-静 脉 ECMO(veno-arterial-venous ECMO3VAV-ECMO)
首选右股静脉、右颈内静脉/左股动脉置管(BPS)
推荐原理:在VA-ECMO中,相对于开胸的中心血管置管,经外周血管置管具有操作简单、创伤更小、纵隔感染和出血风险低、易于管理的优点,特别在心搏骤停等紧急情况下,股静脉是引血置管的首选部位。回血置管的穿刺部位可选择股动脉、腋动脉。由于腋动脉穿刺不便且右半脑卒中的发生率较高,在ICU中股动脉穿刺更便捷,最常选择。为减少血管相关并发症并方便拔除置管时按压止血,最好将引血导管和回血导管置于不同肢体,所以VA-ECMO首选左/右股静脉和左/右股动脉。
VV-ECMO传统置管一般放置两个单腔管,包括股静脉-颈内静脉途径、股静脉-股静脉途径47VV-ECMO通常选择股静脉(引血)和颈内静脉(回血)位置。从解剖位置上,右颈内静脉、右股静脉是通往上、下腔静脉和右心房更直接的路径,在必要时也易于转换为VA模式,所以VV-ECMO置管首选右股静脉和右颈内静脉。如选择单管双腔置管,右颈内静脉经右心房到达下腔静脉的路径更平直,穿刺置管的成功率高,并发症少,能保证氧合血通过最优路径由右心室进入肺动脉,是优先选择的置管部位。
证据分析:2019年Allou等l48的1项回顾性队列研究显示,股静脉-股静脉置管导管相关性感染率明显高于股静脉-颈内静脉置管。因此,临床上更多将股静脉-颈内静脉作为VV-ECMO置管的首选部位。
2019年Raffa等[49]和2020年Mariscalco等[50]的荟萃分析显示,与中心血管置管相比,外周血管置管可显著降低出血( $P{=}0.02\,)$ 和持续血液净化 $\scriptstyle{P=0.03}$ )的风险。这两项荟萃分析AMSTAR-2评价可信度为中等。2022年Biancari等l51进行的Meta分析(556例患者采用中心血管置管,713例患者采用外周血管置管)显示,在VA-ECMO中与外周血管置管相比,中心血管置管与更高的住院病死率相关 $70.8\% $ $64.5\%,P{=}0.03\,,$ )。该荟萃分析AMSTAR-2评价可信度为中等。这些结果可能与中心血管置管的大量出血/输血、出血/填塞等并发症相关52]因此,临床上更多将外周血管作为VA-ECMO置管的首选部位。
3.4问题4:留置PICC如何合理选择置管部位?
推荐意见:贵要静脉是留置PICC的首选部位(BPS)。
推荐原理:PICC置管以肘部静脉为主,该处皮肤菌落计数较低、皮肤油性及湿度低且导管容易固定、易换药、不易污染。常用的肘部静脉为贵要静脉、肘正中静脉和头静脉。贵要静脉粗直、静脉瓣较少、位置固定,离上腔静脉距离最短,穿刺成功率高;而肘正中静脉较粗直,但静脉瓣较多;头静脉前粗后细,静脉分支多,易误入腋静脉或颈内静脉。在CLABSI发生率方面,贵要静脉置管相对较低。因此,应首选感染发生率低、静脉粗直且静脉瓣较少的贵要静脉进行穿刺置管。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共3项研究比较了PICC穿刺部位对CLABSI发生率的影响,其中1项为回顾性队列研究,1项为前瞻性队列研究,1项为观察性研究。研究结果显示,PICC相关性血流感染率为2.31/千例导管日( $5.2\%$ 153];贵要静脉、肘正中静脉、头静脉3种不同置管途径中,贵要静脉PICC置管的CLABSI发生率最低,但差异无统计学音义[54-55]
3.5问题5:留置中心血管内导管的材质如何选择?
推荐意见:建议选用聚氨酯或硅橡胶材质导管 长期留置选用硅橡胶材质(弱推荐,极低质量证据)
推荐原理:导管的物理化学、机械及表面特性影响其性能并决定其细胞黏附性和微生物的定植。这些特性取决于导管的制造材料。硅橡胶和聚氨酯作为留置导管的首选材料,与其他材料相比,具有更好的生物相容性和耐用性。与硅橡胶导管相比聚氨酯导管相对较硬,长期留置导管对穿刺局部的摩擦刺激使受损组织不易修复,导致局部感染率增加。硅橡胶相对更有韧性,可以降低导管引起的血管损伤风险。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共5项研究比较了不同导管材料对CLABSI发生率的影响,其中1项为观察性研究,3项为RCT研究,1项为荟萃分析。观察性研究结果显示,聚氯乙烯导管比聚四氟乙烯导管更容易被微生物定植[56]。1项包含104 例重症创伤患者的RCT研究表明,聚氯乙烯导管比聚四氟乙烯导管更容易被生物定植,聚四氟乙烯培养阳性率为 $6.9\%$ ,而聚氯乙烯导管阳性率为 $24.6\%$ $(P\!<\!0.001\,)^{\,\left[\,57\,\right]}$ 。另1项 RCT研究结果表明,聚氨酯材质导管与聚四氟乙烯材质导管具有同等的导管相关性感染风险 $5.4\% $ $95\%C I $ $3.8\%\sim7.6\%$ DEE $6.9\%(95\%C I $ $4.9\%\sim9.6\%$ )][58]。Seckold等[59]的系统评价比较了聚氨酯与硅橡胶材质导管置大后并
发症的发生率,共纳人13篇文献,结果显示,这两种材质导管的总并发症发生率差异无统计学意义,其发生CLABSI的风险都相对较低。综上,聚氨酯、硅橡胶和聚四氟乙烯这3种材质导管在感染率上差异无统计学意义。但1项纳入208例患者的RCT研究结果显示,与聚氨酯相比,聚四氟乙烯导管有更高的静脉炎发生率和更高的静脉炎评分! $(P{<}0.001\,)^{\left\lceil\,60\,\right\rceil}$
聚氨酯、硅橡胶和聚四氟乙烯这3种材质导管发生CLABSI的概率无显著差异。但考虑到感染以外的因素,推荐硅橡胶和聚氨酯作为留置导管的首选材料。总体而言,研究质量参差不齐,仍需大规模临床试验证实。
3.6问题6:是否选择留置带抗菌涂层的CVC?
推荐意见:推荐留置带抗菌涂层的CVC(弱推荐,高质量证据)。
推荐原理:微生物黏附在导管表面是CLABSI发病机制中重要的环节。使用具有抗感染作用的材料或药物固定到导管表面形成涂层的导管是预防CLABSI的潜在有效措施。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共有3项荟萃分析比较了涂层导管预防CLABSI的有效性。Lai等l61]在2016年发表的荟萃分析纳入了10405例患者,偏倚风险低,异质性低,AMSTAR-2评价可信度高,结果显示,抗菌涂层导管可显著降低CLABSI和微生物的导管定植率【校正相对危险度(adjustedrelative risk, $\mathrm{a}R R\,)\!=\!2\% $ $95\%C I $ $1\%\sim3\% $ $R R{=}$ $0.62\,,95\%C I $ $0.52\sim0.74\,\AA$ 。Wang等l62在2018年发表的荟萃分析纳人了78362例患者,AMSTAR-2评价可信度高,结果显示,在预防CLABSI和微生物导管定植方面抗菌涂层导管优于非涂层导管 $R R{=}0.70 $ $95\%C I $ $0.53\sim0.91$ )。总体而言,与非涂层导管相比,使用抗菌涂层导管与CLABSI发生率降低有关。Chong 等63 发表的网状 Meta 分析共评估了13种抗菌药物涂层,包括氯已定/磺胺密啶银、米诺环素/利福平、咪康唑/利福平、万古霉素、替考拉宁、头孢唑啉、苯扎氯铵、氯已定、5-氟尿嘧啶等,纳入17255根导管,AMSTAR-2评价可信度低,研究表明米诺环素/利福平涂层的导管是预防CLABSI最有效的方法。
为降低CLABSI的发生率,推荐使用抗菌涂层导管,目前的证据表明,米诺环素/利福平涂层导管是预防CLABSI的有效办法,但尚存在争议,需进一步研究。
3.7问题7:如何确定留置CVC的管腔数?
推荐意见:建议选择能够满足疾病诊疗需要的管腔数最少的导管(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:应用多管腔的导管会增加CLABSI的风险,可能是由于这类导管会导致细菌等微生物有更多的机会接触导管继而发生感染。但使用多腔导管时感染风险的增加可能被其临床使用便捷性抵消。因此需仔细评估留置导管的必要性,并使用尽可能少的管腔。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共3项研究比较了不同管腔数对导管相关性感染发生率的影响,其中1项为观察性研究,2项为荟萃分析。观察性研究纳人1162例患者,结果显示,使用多腔导管发生CLABSI的危险性明显增加,每增加1个CVC管腔,风险就会增加 $4\%$ (风险比(hazardratio, $H R)\!=\!4.4$ $95\%C I $ 1,永久性关闭额外的管腔具有保护作用( $(H R{=}0.3\,,95\%C I $ Dezfulian等l65的荟萃分析纳人了6199例患者,异质性低,AMSTAR-2评价可信度低,研究结果显示,CLABSI在多腔导管中更常见【优势比(oddsratio, $O R=\!2.15$ $95\%C I $ $1.00\sim4.66\,\AA$ 。Zurcher等[6]的荟萃分析纳入了530例患者,AMSTAR-2评价可信度低,结果表明,CVC内管腔的数量会影响导管相关性血流感染的发生率,与多腔导管相比,单腔导管的CLABSI风险更低。
单腔、双腔和三腔CVC发生CLABSI的可能性有所不同,相比之下,单腔导管的感染风险可能更低,但该差异尚需要进一步循证医学证据支持。目前推荐根据临床实际情况及可获得性选择管腔最少的导管。
3.8问题8:血管内导管置管时需要最大无菌屏障马?
推荐意见:血管内导管置入时,须遵守最大无菌屏障要求(BPS)。
推荐原理:患者皮肤菌群或操作者手卫生状况不佳可引起CLABSI,在置管期间使用越大的无菌屏障及严格的无菌预防措施越能在最大范围内阻止微生物的传播,从而降低微生物导管定植率和医院获得性感染发生率,并减少卫生经济学成本。操作者需戴工作圆帽、医用外科口罩,执行手卫生并戴无菌于套,穿无菌手术衣或无菌隔离衣,铺覆盖患者全身的大无菌单。置管过程中手套污染或破损时应立即更换。置管操作辅助人员应戴工作圆帽医用外
科口罩、执行手卫生。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共3项研究比较了最大无菌屏障与标准无菌屏障对CLABSI发生率的影响。2013年1项荟萃分析比较了最大无菌屏障与标准无菌屏障的优劣,纳入了8个研究,共2887例患者,AMSTAR-2评价可信度极低,结果显示,最大无菌屏障可降低CLABSI发生率( $O R\!=$ 0.35, $95\%C I $ $0.24\sim0.53 $ $P\!<\!0.01\,)^{\!\,[\,67\,]}$ 。然而1项纳人996例患者的RCT研究表明,最大无菌屏障与标准无菌屏障相比CLABSI发生率的差异并无统计学意义[68]。由于最大化无菌屏障作为集束化预防的组成部分,有研究者发现,当其依从性非常好 $(\geqslant95\%$ )时,CLABSI发生率才会降低[69]。另外,2019年日本1项纳入2383例极低出生体质量新生儿的前瞻性多中心观察性研究,可间接证明使用最大化无菌屏障会使导管相关感染有所减少【校正风险比(adjusted hazard ratio, $a H R{})=}0.20 $ $95\%C I$ $0.05\sim0.84\,\AA\,^{\lfloor\,70\,\rfloor}$
虽然对最大化无菌屏障预防策略依然存在分歧,但由于CLABSI带来的临床和经济后果,仍建议在进行CVC置管时使用最大无菌屏障及其他综合预防措施,以尽可能减少CLABSI发生。
3.9问题9:置人血管内导管前,穿刺部位应选择何种消毒剂?
推荐意见:穿刺血管置人导管前,推荐选择含醇氯己定的消毒剂进行皮肤消毒(强推荐,高质量订证据)。
推荐原理:导管最常见的感染途径是皮肤定植菌从插人部位迁移到导管并沿导管表面迁移至导管尖端定植7,因此应在置管前采用抑制致病微生物生长的强消毒剂进行皮肤消毒,可以防止置入部位的微生物污染,从而延缓或减少导管定植的风险和随后感染性并发症的发展。目前常用的3种消毒剂为氯已定、聚维酮碘和乙醇,均有广谱抗菌活性72
证据分析:经系统检索,共有8篇文献比较了不同消毒剂对预防导管相关性感染的有效性,其中2002年Chaiyakunapruk等r73」的荟萃分析纳人了8个研究,比较了 $10\%$ 聚维酮碘水溶液与葡萄糖酸氯己定对CLABSI的影响,AMSTAR-2评价可信度极低,结果显示,葡萄糖酸氯己定可将CLABSI的风险降低 $49\% $ $R R{=}0.51 $ $95\%C I $ $0.27\sim0.971$ 2019年Shi等174发表的荟萃分析纳人了9个研究共6209根导管,比较了聚维酮碘溶液与氯已定
溶液对CLABSI发生率影响的差异,AMSTAR-2评价可信度低,其结果明确表明使用 $2\%$ 含醇氯己定可降低CLABSI发生风险( $,R R\!=\!0.23 $ $95\%C I$ $0.09\sim0.577$ )。2021年1项Meta分析比较了各种皮肤消毒剂,纳人2815根导管,AMSTAR-2评价可信度高,结果显示, $1\%$ 氯已定乙醇溶液作为皮肤消毒剂,发生CLABSI的风险显著低于 $0.5\%$ 氯已定乙醇溶液 $.R R{=}0.40 $ $95\%C I $ $0.16\sim0.98\ $ $10\%$ 聚住酮碘水溶液( $R R{=}0.31$ , $95\%C I $ $0.15\sim0.63\,\AA)^{[\,75\,]}$ 然动, $2\%$ 含醇氯已定与 $1\%$ 氯已定乙醇溶液尚无研究比较。
置管时使用氯己定、聚维酮碘、乙醇的CLABSI发生率各不相同,目前证据表明乙醇制剂优于水溶液制剂,其中含醇氯已定可使CLABSI发生率明显降低,然而最佳使用浓度仍需进一步研究。
3.10问题10:是否应采用超声引导进行中心血管穿刺置管?
推荐意见:推荐常规使用超声引导进行中心血管定位和穿刺置管(强推荐,中质量证据)
推荐原理:传统中心静脉置管操作依赖于对体表解剖标志的识别和血管的触诊,由于个体变异性,传统定位方式并不完全准确。超声引导下中心静脉置管可精确显示血管位置及血管的毗邻结构,同时还能及时发现穿刺目标血管的异常状况,如血管内血栓。因此相比传统方法,超声引导置管一次性穿刺成功率更高,穿刺次数更少,置管耗时更短,以上优势可能会使包括CLABSI在内的置管并发症发生率降低,安全性升高。故推荐采用超声引导下中心静脉置管,但穿刺置管人员应经过规范的超声培训。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共15项RCT研究进行了超声引导中心静脉置管与常规方法的比较,均为单中心研究,其中13项研究的对照为体表解剖标志定位,1项研究的对照为盲法穿刺,1项研究的对照为常规方法。本指南将上述15项研究76-90]进行了荟萃分析,共计3852例患者,结果显示,相比对照组,超声引导置管总成功率更高( ${\it\Delta}99.1\%$ EE $88.6\% $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ ),一次性穿刺成功率更高( $\it{(77.3\%}$ EE $43.9\% $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ ),并发症发生风险更低( $4.9\%$ EE $23.4\%$ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$
血管内导管管理
4.1问题1:应选择何种敷料进行血管内导管覆盖?
推荐意见:建议选择无菌透明敷料覆盖CVC置人部位(弱推荐,低质量证据)有考必密
推荐原理:血管内导管的敷料覆盖是非常重要的CLABSI预防措施,当前临床较常用的覆盖敷料是无菌纱布和无菌透明敷料。敷料的选择应根据血管通路装置的类型及预计使用时间、患者的皮肤状况、穿刺处渗血和渗液情况、对敷料的过敏史等进行综合评估。与无菌纱布相比,无菌透明敷料可以直接观察穿刺点皮肤状况,固定更牢固,更换频次更低,建议作为首选覆盖敷料。但若穿刺部位渗液明显、患者大量出汗或存在无菌敷料皮肤过敏时,建议选择无菌纱布覆盖。
证据分析:1项纳人35个RCT研究共8494例患者的网状荟萃分析比较了13种无菌覆盖敷料预防CLABSI的能力,首要结局是CLABSI发生率,结果显示,无菌透明敷料具有最好的预防CLABSI的效果( $O R{=}0.35 $ $95\%C I $ $0.14\!\sim\!0.89\,)^{\left[\,91\,\right]}$ 。但对这项荟萃分析依照AMSTAR-2进行评估,其在2个非重点领域存在缺陷(研究筛选可重复性、数据筛选可重复性)同时数据结果汇总并不全面,故证据级别定为低级。
AN 问题2:如何确定穿刺部位局部敷料的更换频率?
推荐意见1:建议无菌纱布敷料每2d更换1次(BPS)。
推荐意见2:无菌透明敷料每7d更换1次;敷料松动、潮湿、被污染或可疑被污染、完整性受损时立即更换(弱推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐原理:合理的敷料更换间隔时间对于预防CLABSI至关重要。敷料能保护穿刺部位免受细菌侵人,但过久不换会影响防护效果,频繁更换又易致穿刺点局部污染与皮肤损伤,增加感染风险。因此,应根据患者皮肤状况、敷料类型和穿刺点是否渗出等情况更换敷料,确保穿刺点干燥清洁、敷料贴合良好,遵循无菌操作与保持皮肤完整原则,以减少感染风险。
证据说明:经系统文献检索,发现有1项系统综述比较了不同血管内导管敷料更换频率对CLABSI的影响,有7项与该主题相关的临床研究,其中6项为RCT研究,1项为病例对照研究。2011年Ishizuka等92的RCT研究显示,每 $72\textrm{h}$ 更换敷料与与三巨 $72\,\mathrm{{h}}$ 更换敷料对CLABSI的影响差异无统计学意义(3.03/千导管置管日比5.62/千导管置管日, $P\!>$ 0.05)。2009年Timsit等l20」的RCT研究比较了每和每3d更换1次敷料在导管定植率上的差异,
结果表明,每7d更换也无劣性, $7\ \mathrm{d}\,(\,168/1\ 828$ $8.6\% $ $7.8\%$ 平均绝对差为 $0.8\%$ $H R{=}0.99 $ $95\%C I $ $0.77\sim1.28\,.$ )。2012年Timsit等l"基于该研究进一步分析发现,间隔 或7d进行第2次更换敷料时,导管相关性血流感染( $H R\!=$ 4.49, $95\%C I $ $1.71\sim11.79 $ $\scriptstyle P=0.002$ )和严重导管相关性感染( $H R\!=\!3.26 $ $95\%C I $ $1.18\sim9.02 $ $P{=}$ 0.023)的风险均比第1次更换时增加了3倍多。
4.3问题3:局部使用抗菌敷料是否可以降低CLABSI的发生风险?
推荐意见:建议局部使用氯已定抗菌敷料以降低CLABSI的发生风险(弱推荐,中质量证据)
推荐原理:氯已定抗菌敷料通过改变细胞膜的通透性,诱导病原菌凋亡;同时可与皮肤细胞中的多糖结合形成保护膜,抑制菌群形成:其带有的透明凝胶垫能充分吸收穿刺点渗出,使其在吸附状态下仍可保持长达 的抗菌作用。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共有27项研究比较了氯已定敷料与非氯已定敷料对CLABSI发生率的影响。本指南对27项以氯己定敷料为主题的国内外临床研究[20,94-119]进行了荟萃分析,共纳入8718例患者,比较了氯已定敷料与非氯已定敷料对CLABSI发生率的影响,结果显示,与非氯己定敷料相比,氯已定敷料能降低CLABSI发生率( $.R R{=}0.54$ $95\%C I $ $0.42\sim0.69 $ $P{<}0.01 $ $I^{2}{=}28\%$
4.4问题4:如何选择附加接头以预防CLABSI?
推荐意见1:建议使用无针接头和消毒导管帽,以降低CLABSI发生风险(弱推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐意见2:建议使用无针接头时,优先选择分隔膜接头(弱推荐,极低质量证据)
推荐原理:三通接头端口易被污染,且内部的无效区域可能影响冲管和消毒效果,增加感染风险。分隔膜无针接头表面光滑易消毒,材质透明易于观察,可减少药液和血迹残留,其密闭式设计直接隔绝导管管腔与外界环境,输注药物顺畅,断开则自动关闭,可有效阻止微生物侵人。消毒导管帽内置有 $70\%$ 乙醇或异丙醇海绵,可消毒导管端口及周边,并持续提供抗菌屏障,降低感染风险。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共发现2项与该主题相关的荟萃分析以及14项与该主题相关的临床研究。其中1项荟萃分析与7项临床研究比较了不同类型无针接头与三通接头对CLABSI发生的影响;2项临床研究比较了分隔膜接头与机械阀无针接头
对CLABSI的影响:1项荟萃分析与5项临床研究评估了消毒导管帽对CLABSI的影响。
本指南对7项比较无针接头与三通接头对CLABSI影响的研究[120-126]进行了荟萃分析,结果显示,与三通接头相比,无针接头可降低CLABSI发生 $.R R{=}0.57 $ $95\%C I $ $0.36\sim0.91 $ $\scriptstyle P=0.02 $ $I^{2}{=}$ $71\%$ )。因不同类型无针输液接头实际预防CLABSI的效果可能存在差异,所以本指南另对检索到的2 项与无针接头相关的临床研究[127-128]进行了荟萃分析,比较了分隔膜无针接头与机械阀无针接头对CLABSI的影响。结果显示,相较于机械阀无针接头,分隔膜无针接头能降低CLABSI发生率( $R R{=}0.44$ $95\%C I $ ${\it P}{=}0.03$
本指南对5项消毒导管帽相关的研究125,129-132]进行荟萃分析,评估其对CLABSI的影响,结果显示,使用消毒导管帽能降低CLABSI发生率( $.R R{=}0.35$ $95\%C I $ $\scriptstyle P=0.007$ $I^{2}{=}54\%$
4.5问题5:如何进行无针输液接头的消毒?
推荐意见:建议使用 $70\%\sim75\%$ 乙醇或含醇氯已定棉片对导管端口及无针接头进行全方位、充分擦拭消毒,自然待干(弱推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐原理:无针接头的消毒、待干时长和效果取决于接头的表面粗糙度、接头回槽与间隙位置、数量及消毒剂的属性。常用消毒剂包括 $70\%\sim75\%$ 二享、 $70\%$ 异内醇、 $2\%$ 氯已定、氯已定含量 ${\tt>}0.5\%$ 的含醇溶液等。 $70\%\sim75\%$ 乙醇能渗透微生物蛋自质分子致其变性沉淀,并可彻底清除导管上的有机物;氯已定则可改变细菌通透性,达到杀菌效果。操作者应根据接头与消毒剂说明书,全方位包裹用力揉搓无针接头与导管端口,使消毒剂充分接触摩擦,并等待自然干燥,以彻底清除残留微生物,避免病原菌进人液路和血路系统。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,发现与主题相关的系统评价1项、荟萃分析1项、观察性研究1项,探讨不同消毒剂对预防CLABSI的效果。
2015年Moureau和Flynn[133]的1项系统评价报道,使用 $70\%\sim75\%$ 乙醇棉片擦拭消毒无针接头可降低CLABSI风险,但尚无法确定最佳消毒时间。2019 年 Flynn等[134]的荟萃分析结果显示,与 $70\%$ 乙醇棉片相比,含醇氯已定棉片、 $70\%$ 醇导管帽均可有效降低CLABSI发生率;其中,有10项研究结果证实,与 $70\%$ 乙醇棉片组相比, $70\%$ 乙醇导管帽组CLABSI发生率显著降低( $\scriptstyle(R R=0.43$
$95\%C I $ $0.28\sim0.65\$ );有2项研究结果表明,含醇氯已定棉片组CLABSI发生率显著低于 $70\%$ 之醇棉片组( $R R\!=\!0.28 $ $95\%C I $ $0.20\sim0.39$ )。该荟萃分析AMSTAR-2评价可信度极低。2023年Roberts ${}^{[\,135\,]}1$ 项体外研究对比了在特定消毒时间下不同消毒剂的效果,结果显示, $70\%$ 异丙醇棉片(消毒、待士 $3.15\%$ 氯已定混合 $70\%$ 异丙醇棉片(消毒 待干5s)的消毒效果优于 $70\%$ 异丙醇导管帽(消毒 待王 )。综上所述,选择适当的消毒剂和消毒时间对于降低CLABSI风险至关重要,未来的临床实践和研究可进一步探索最佳消毒方案,以最大程度地保障患者的安全。
4.6问题6:如何确定输液接头、输液装置的更换周其期?
推荐意见:建议持续输液时,输液接头与输注装置每7d更换,可见残留物、可疑污染时立即更换(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:输液装置及其附加接头的密闭性对于防止血液污染至关重要。为避免污染,应减少更换次数。但使用血液制品和脂肪乳剂等易滋生微生物的制剂时,需更频繁更换,因这些制剂在长时间输注中更易变质、分解,并容易产生微粒残留,增加感染风险。通常血液制品输注装置每 更换1次,脂肪乳剂每 更换1次。然而目前研究尚不充分,医护人员应结合实际情况做出合理决策,确保输液安全:
证据分析:经系统文献检索,发现有1项与该主题相关的系统评价;有2项比较输注装置不同更换时长对CLABSI发生影响的研究,其中1项为RCT研究,1项为前后对照研究。
2013年1项纳入13个研究、4783例患者的系统评价中,有8项研究报道了CLABSI指标,结果显示,没有证据显示每 $96\textup{h}$ 或更频繁地更换静脉输注装置可降低CLABSI发生率( $.R R\!=\!1.06 $ $95\%C I$ $0.67\sim1.69\,)^{\!\!\!\lfloor\,136\,\rceil}$ 。本指南对2项临床研究[137-138]进行了荟萃分析,共纳入4353例患者,比较了不同输注装置更换时长对患者发生CLABSI的影响,结果证实,将静脉输注装置从4d延长至7d更换对CLABSI发生率无显著影响( $R R{=}0.83$ $95\%C I$
4.7问题7:是否可以常规经中心血管内导管采集血标本?
推荐意见:不建议常规经中心血管内导管采集
血标本(BPS)。
推荐原理:经中心血管内导管采集血标本需打开导管密团系统,会增加细菌进入的可能性,同时也增加导管内部血栓形成及细菌附着的风险,导致细菌生物膜形成,引发CLABSI。临床实践中,医护人员需全面权衡中心血管内导管采血的获益和风险,根据患者实际情况决策。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,尚未发现经中心血管内导管采血对CLABSI影响的直接证据,
4.8问题8:无菌操作不能保证时,导管是否需要及时更换?
推荐意见:无菌操作不能保证时,血管内导管建议尽快拔除或更换(BPS)
推荐原理:基于血管导管感染防控要求,应尽最大可能使用无菌术进行穿刺置管。对于为抢救生命需要在环境、设备、材料无法达到无菌操作要求时进行的紧急血管内置管,因为其导致病原微生物穿透物理屏障入血的概率增加,且病原微生物在血液中繁殖速度会以指数级递增,故应在达到抢救目的后尽快更换或拔除导管,以避免CLABSI的发生。
证据分析:并无直接针对该问题的对照研究。在关于CLABSI预防集束化策略效果的2项研究中包含了导管及时撤除内容,均显示出良好的预防效果139-140]
4.9一问题9:如何确定血管内导管的留置时间?
推荐意见:推荐每日评估导管留置的必要性,尽早拔除不必要的血管内导管(强推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐原理:导管因材质、穿刺部位、临床应用不同,留置时间也不尽相同。导管留置时间与CLABSI发生率呈正相关,但定期更换导管并不会降低CLABSI发生率141,因此应尽早拔除不必要的血管内导管。
证据分析:通过系统检索文献,共获得13项评估导管留置时间与导管相关性感染关系的研究,对所有文献进行荟萃分析,并形成GRADE证据表格。研究显示,延长血管导管留置时间将增加导管相关性感染( $O R\!=\!1.03 $ $95\%C I $ $1.02\sim$ 1.04)[34,142-147];CVC 留置时间 ${>}14\;\mathrm{d}$ 是导管相关性感染的危险因素( $(O R{=}7.71\,,95\%C I $ $2.19\sim27.14\AA$ 甚至是独立危险因素( $O R\!=\!3.37 $ $95\%C I$ 6.34)[46,148-149];PICC 留置时间超过 $30\textup{d}$ ,导管相关性感染的风险显著增加( $.O R\!=\!10.92 $ $95\%C I$ )[150-151]。另有1项小样本 RCT 研究显
示,8例肺动脉导管相关性全身感染均发生在导管留置 4 d后[152】。通常情况下,CVC 留置时间 ${>}\,14~\mathrm{d}$ PICC留置时间 ${>}30\textup{d}$ 、肺动脉导管留置时间 ${>}4\mathrm{~d~}$ 导管感染风险明显增加。
通过评估导管留置时间对CLABSI的影响来作出推荐意见,由于这些文献主要基于回顾性观察性研究,局限性、异质性显著,混杂因素不能排除,因此评估该推荐证据质量为低级别,由于及时拔除导管符合临床实际需求,因此为强推荐。
4.10问题10-1:为预防CLABSI,ICU患者的CVC是否应定期更换?
推荐意见:不建议ICU患者定期更换CVC以预防CLABSI(弱推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐原理:CVC留置时间延长会增加CLABSI的发生风险[153],但因此而采取机械化的定期导管更换并不会减少 CLABSI 的发生。Castelli 等[153]发现导管留置7d以内的CLABSI发生率为O。Rickard等138的研究也显示,第7天更换导管与第4天更换导管相比,并未增加CLABSI的发生风险( $1.46\%$ $1.78\% $ $95\%C I $ $-0.73\sim1.37\,)$ 。对于留置时间超过7d的CVC,也不需要定期更换,可根据是否存在导管感染的临床指征选择个体化导管更换方案。!
证据总结:1项荟萃分析显示,与定期更换导管相比,根据临床指征更换导管并不增加CLABSI的发生率(1/3590比2/3733; $R R{=}0.61 $ $95\%C I$ $0.08\sim4.68\$ .但可以降低导管装置相关费用154,该荟萃分析AMSTAR-2评价可信度为中等。本指南也将检索的 2 项 进行了荟萃分析,共计2644例患者,结果显示,定期进行CVC更换不能降低CLABSI发生率(23/1353比19/1291; $R R\!=\!1.16$ $95\%C I $ $\scriptstyle P=0.63$
问题10-2:更换CVC时是否可以通过导丝进行原位更换?
推荐意见:为防止CLABSI,不建议通过导丝原位更换CVC(BPS)
推荐原理:临床上因监测或治疗需要而更换中心血管内导管时,有2种更换方式选择,即经导丝原位更换导管和选择新的穿刺部位再次置管。经导丝原位更换避免了穿刺相关并发症的发生,但如原穿刺部位存在可疑感染(包括皮肤软组织感染、CLABSI等),或者导管留置部位存在定植菌或致病菌,则可能在更换过程中导致细菌入血,增加CLABSI 发生风险。社版权所有违者必究
证据分析:Cobb等li55研究显示,与新位置穿刺更换导管相比,经导丝更换导管后第3大感染风险有增加趋势( $6\%$ E比O, $\scriptstyle P=0.06.$ ),但可降低穿刺并发症发生率( $1\%$ EE $5\%$ , $P{=}0.005$ )。Coupez等[i56]和Castelli等li53的研究均显示,通过导丝更换导管与穿刺新部位置管的感染率差异无统计学意义。本指南对上述3项RCT研究进行了荟萃分析,共纳人2769例患者,结果显示,通过导丝更换导管与穿刺新部位置管的CLABSI发生率差异无统计学意义(9/1606比 $5/1\ 163\!:\!R R\!=\!1.42,95\%C I $ $0.47\sim4.23$ $\scriptstyle P=0.53$ )。但由于是间接性证据,所以GRADE质量低,且上述研究均未对原部位是否存在感染进行分析。本指南制定专家组基于避免原位病原微生物人血继发CLABSI的原因,不建议通过导丝原位更换CVC。但在特殊临床场景,如其他穿刺部位已经被ECMO或连续性肾脏替代治疗(continuousrenalreplacementtherapy,CRRT)导管占用,其他部位因特殊原因不能进行穿刺置管,穿刺置管困难,且无可疑感染或明确感染依据时,临床医生可以经导丝原位进行更换。基于上述原因,本指南制定组将推荐级别确定为BPS。
4.11问题11:CVC旷置期是否需要使用抗菌溶液进行封管?
A推荐意见:建议对发生CLABSI高风险患者,在导管旷置期使用抗菌药物封管,以减少CLABSI发生(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:在进行CVC维护时,除严格遵循无菌原则及操作规范以外,还应进行有效的冲管及封管。在临床实践中如何选择合适的封管液体尚无统一标准。ICU内CVC旷置期使用的封管液包括生理盐水、抗凝药物溶液、抗菌药物溶液等。抗菌药物封管液会减少CVC内细菌的定植,可能会降低CLABSI的发生率。
证据总结:经过系统检索,有8项与该主题相关的对照研究[157-164]。Agarwal 等[157]证实牛磺罗定与肝素封管液的感染发生率分别为0.13/千导管日和0.46/千导管日,而且牛磺罗定比肝素封管更晚发生感染( $P\!<\!0.001$ )。但 Gudiol 等[158]研究显示,与安慰剂组相比,牛磺罗定-枸橡酸-肝素封管液未降低CLABSI发生率。Filippi等159在新生儿ICU中发现,与对照组肝素封管液相比,使用夫西地酸封管液可显著减少CLABSI的发生(6.6/千导管日比24.9/千导管日; $95\%C I $ $0.13\sim0.60$
$P{<}0.01$ )。Garland等li60也发现,与肝素生理盐水封管液相比,使用万古霉素封管液可显著降低新生儿CLABSI发生率(2.3/千导管日比17.8/千导管日; $R R{=}0.13 $ $95\%C I $ $0.01\sim0.571$ )。本指南对检索的8项研究157-164]进行了荟萃分析,结果显示抗菌药物封管液可以显著降低CLABSI的发生率(21/809比89/792: $R R\!=\!0.24 $ $95\%C I $ $0.15\sim0.37 $ $P{<}0.01$ 但因CRADE质量低,本指南制定组将推荐级别定为弱推荐。
在不同抗菌药物封管液降低CLABSI发生率效果上,Bueloni等l165发现,透析患者中使用头孢唑啉-庆大霉素封管液与牛磺罗定-枸橡酸盐封管液相比差异无统计学意义,AMSTAR-2评价可信度低。Zhang等166也未发现万古霉素封管液与牛磺罗定封管液在减少CLABSI上有明显差异,AMSTAR-2评价可信度中等。由于纳入研究中的抗菌药物封管液种类、剂量均存在较大异质性,因此本指南制定组无法给出具体选用何种抗菌药物封管液的推荐意见
4.12问题12:CVC是否可用于输注血制品?
推荐意见:不建议常规从CVC输注血制品(弱推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐原理:由于CVC在管径、液体输注速度上具有优势,为了快速救治患者,部分临床医生选择通过CVC输注血制品。但血制品因其携氧、富含营养底物等特性,是导致病原体在导管定植乃至引起CLABSI的高危因素,因此基于感染预防角度,不建议常规从CVC输注血制品。但在需紧急输血抢救患者等特定临床场景下,临床医师需要权衡经CVC输注血制品的获益与发生CLABSI的风险,并最终决定是否经CVC输注血制品
证据分析:经过系统检索,有6项与该主题相关的研究(4项对照研究,2项荟萃分析)167-172」Shorr等l168经多变量分析发现,输注红细胞与新发CLABSI独立相关( $O R{=}2.23\,,95\%C I $ $1.43\sim3.52\rangle$ 且不论输血量多少,均与CLABSI存在正相关。Ricci等[16]认为,输血通过带有亚临床微生物定植的CVC 引起导管感染。Erbay等[170]发现,输注血制品与导管相关性感染复发风险增加有关( $\cdot H R\!=\!2.3$ $95\%C I $ $1.02\sim5.67 $ $P{=}0.049$ )。Thomas-Riddel等17的荟萃分析显示,输血( $O R{=}4.9$ , $95\%C I$ $1.5\sim16.3\$ )和肠外营养( $R{=}4.6,95\%C I$ 均是发生念珠菌感染的高危因素该荟萃分析
AMSTAR-2评价可信度中等。Rabelo等l172的荟萃分析显示,感染前4~7d输血是导管感染的危险因素,该荟萃分析AMSTAR-2评价可信度低。本指南对3项 RCT研究[168-170进行了荟萃分析,结果显示,通过CVC输注红细胞可显著增加患者发生CLABSI的风风险 $(R R\!=\!3.60,95\%C I $ $1.02\sim12.70\,,P{=}0.05\,\rangle$ 但本荟萃分析存在偏倚,异质性显著,GRADE证据质量极低,所以将推荐级别定为弱推荐。
4.13 问题13:氯己定全身擦浴是否能预防CLABSI的发生?
推荐意见:推荐高危患者每日采用 $2\%\sim4\%$ 已定擦浴,以预防CLABSI的发生(强推荐,高质量证据)。
推荐原理:氯已定是一种阳离子的肌类杀菌剂,具有亲油基团,与皮肤表皮蛋白具有高亲和力,可以迅速完成消毒,还能保证较强的抑菌效果[173]。每日氯已定擦浴可杀灭大多数革兰阳性菌和革兰阴性菌,形成一层保护膜,减少患者皮肤表面细菌定植,也有助于减少耐药菌的传播[174]。氯己定擦浴浓度通常在 $2\%\sim4\%$ ,重症患者每日氯己定擦浴可减少CLABSI的发生!175-180],安全且无明显不良反应,可减少医疗费用支出[181]
证据分析:经系统文献检索,有6项前瞻性交叉对照或RCT研究比较了氯已定擦浴与常规擦浴对ICU重症患者CLABSI发生率的影响175-180]2016年1项包含4项随机交叉试验涉及25个ICU的22850例重症患者的荟萃分析显示,与对照组相比,每且采用 $2\%$ 葡萄糖酸氯己定擦浴组CLABSI发生风险显著下降( $\scriptstyle0R=0.50,95\%C I $ $0.35\sim0.71$ $P{<}0.001)^{\left\lceil{-182}\right\rceil}$ ,该荟萃分析AMSTAR-2评价可信度中等。2022年1项纳入72个ICU共计76815例患者的RCT研究显示,氯已定组CLABSI发生率从于预前的1.48/千患者住院日下降为 千患者住院日 $(P{=}0.008\;5\,;a H R{=}0.69\,,95\%C I $ $0.46\sim0.87$ $P{=}0.017\;2)^{\left[\,175\,\right]}$ 。本指南对上述6项研究进行 Meta分析显示,与对照组(195129例)相比,氯已定组(193002例)CLABSI发生率明显下降(1.05/千住院日比1.31/千住院日: $R R{=}0.76\,,95\%C I $ $0.65\sim0.89$ $\scriptstyle P=0.000\ 8 $ $I^{2}{=}34\%$ )。1项卫生经济学研究显示,氯己定擦浴主要可降低耐碳青霉烯类肺炎克雷伯菌(carbapenem-resistantKlebsiellapneumoniae,CRKP)CLABSI发生率( $\scriptstyle{P=0.05}$ ),同时降低 $30\%$ 的医疗费用”。全美95家医院136个ICU实施基于循证医
学的护理策略能有效改善氯已定擦浴的依从性,并降低CLABSI发生率[183]。但对于非ICU住院患者,常规氯已定擦浴并不能有效降低各种病原菌所致的血流感染和多重耐药菌感染发生风险184]
5高危因素
5.1问题1:应该如何对重症患者发生CLABSI的风险进行评估?
推荐意见:建议对重症患者发生CLABSI的高危因素进行评估,包括:置管部位、导管腔数、导管留置时间、反复置管等因素。其他因素如较高的急性生理学与慢性健康状况评分Ⅱ(acute physiologyandchronichealthevaluationⅡ,APACHEⅡ)、男性、糖尿病、高血压等也与发生CLABSI的高风险相关(弱推荐,极低质量证据)
推荐原理:为了临床上从预防角度更好地处理重症患者CLABSI,需要筛查其相关风险因素,这些因素分为可校正因素和不可校正因素。可校正因素如置管部位、导管腔数、导管留置时间、置管次数等;不可校正的因素包括年龄、性别、体质量指数(body mass index, BMI) $\geqslant\!40\mathrm{\kg}/\mathrm{m}^{2}\setminus$ 疾病严重程度(APACHEⅡ评分)基础疾病(糖尿病、高血压、心脑血管疾病)等。
证据分析:通过文献检索,有18篇文献纳入该分析,其中1项RCT研究,14项回顾性研究,3项前瞻性研究。有6项研究[185-190]比较了股静脉与锁骨下部位深静脉置管对CLABSI的影响,结果显示,股静脉置管风险更高( $O R\!=\!3.21 $ $95\%C I$ $2.10\sim4.90$ )。4 项研究[18-18,190191] 比较了颈内静脉与锁骨下静脉置管对CLABSI的影响,结果显示,前者CLABSI风险更高( $.O R\!=\!3.18 $ $95\%C I$ $1.68\sim6.02$ )。4 项研究[185-186,191-192]比较了颈内静脉与股静脉置管,结果显示,二者CLABSI风险租当( $O R\!=\!1.20 $ $95\%C I $ $0.81\sim1.80$ )。另4项研究[188,190,193-194]显示,选择多腔导管发生 CLABSI 的风险更高( $O R\!=\!2.52 $ $95\%C I $ $1.36\sim4.57\,,$ 。此外,Esteve等l195发现,导管置人时间的延长可能增加CLABSI的风险( $O R\!=\!1.118\,,95\%C I $ $1.026\sim1.219\,\AA$
患者自身基础疾病及严重程度也是导致CLABSI的相关危险因素之一。 $\mathrm{BM}{\geqslant}40\ \mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{m}^{2}$ $O R{=}2.19$ , $95\%C I $ $1.19\sim4.04\,\big)^{\,\big[\,187\,\big]},$ 合并糖尿病 $O R\!=\!5.03 $ $95\%C I $ $2.82\sim9.001$ )[ 186. 191, 193-199]、高血压( $O R\!=\!3.20$ , $95\%C I $ 己脑血管疾病( $O R\!\equiv\!2.66 $ $95\%C I $ 200-201]
患者也具有较高的CLABSI发生风险。较高的 APACHEⅡ评分可带来更高的血流感染风险( $O R\!=$ 2.77 $95\%C I$ 为1.85\~4.77)194,200-202]
5.2问题2:出现哪些临床征象时启动重症患者CLABSI的诊断流程?
推荐意见:建议对于出现发热、导管置入部位红肿、疼痛或脓性分泌物等征象的深静脉置管患者,应该及时启动CLABSI诊断流程(弱推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐原理:对于留置深静脉导管的重症患者,应该密切观察发生CLABSI的早期征象。通过局部和全身的症状、体征,辅助检查进行综合评估,正确区分导管相关性与非导管相关性感染,从而为规范化的导管管理提供依据。
证据分析:Buetti等l203通过荟萃分析,评估了重症患者局部感染征象与CLABSI的关联以及有哪些临床条件可能预示要发生导管相关性感染。研究共纳人6976例患者,14590根导管(101182导管日)和114例患者导管相关性感染均有局部体征。观察到超过1个局部体征的有1938例( $13.3\%$ $O R{=}4.72 $ 为3.18~7.00),红肿1633例
$11.2\% $ $2.09\sim4.93$ ),疼痛59例 $0.4\% $ $O R{=}4.22 $ $95\%C I $ $0.99\sim17.92\,,$ ),非脓性分泌物251例 $(1.7\%;O R{=}3.68\,,95\%C I $ $1.68\sim8.05\,.$ 脓性分泌物102例( $0.7\% $ $O R{=}20.19 $ $95\%C I$ $10.36\sim39.37\,.$ )。校正混杂因素后, $\geqslant\!1$ 个局部征象、红肿、非化脓性分泌物和化脓性分泌物与导管相关性感染高度相关。
建议采用综合评估来提前预警发生CLABSI的风风险。 项来自法国的回顾性队列研究表明,孤立的导管阳性培养在预测CLABSI中的意义较低。虽然阳性导管培养可以显示病原体的存在,但它并不意味着将发展为血流感染[204]。另1项研究表明,皮肤和导管中心拭子的革兰染色在预测导管相关性菌血症方面显示出高度的敏感性和特异性,尤其是在患者无明显感染迹象时;革兰染色可以作为一种有效的初步筛查工具【205]
6血管内导管相关性血流感染的处理
6.1问题1:临床疑诊CLABSI时,应如何处理导管?
推荐意见:临床疑诊CLABSI时,建议尽早拔除 血管内导管(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:留置血管内导管是CLABSI的感
染来源,去除感染源是控制感染的关键。导管内生物膜形成使病原菌难以清除,而革兰阴性杆菌相关CLABSI易进展为多重耐药菌相关CLABSI,需尽早拔除导管。针对有CVC需求且重新置管困难的患者,需要考虑患者的病情、导管需求及对重新置管潜在风险进行综合评估。
证据分析:通过系统检索文献,共获得16项评估拔管与CLABSI预后关系的研究,对所有文献进行荟萃分析,并形成GRADE证据表格。结果显示,拔除导管能显著降低CLABSI病死率 $O R{=}0.17$ , $95\%C I $ )[191,206-213],特别是念珠菌相关CLABSI病死率( $O R{=}0.08 $ $95\%C I$ $0.02\sim0.301$ [206-207,209-210, 212-213] ; $12\textrm{h}$ 内拔管对住院病死率的影响差异无统计学意义( $.O R{=}0.61$ $95\%C I $ $0.07\sim5.31\,)^{[\,149\,,\,214\,]}$ , $48\textrm{h}$ 内拔管可改善住院病死率( $O R{=}0.41 $ $95\%C I $ $0.22\!\sim\!0.78\,)$ [215-216」,内拔管可改善 病死率( $\left(O R\!=\!0.13\,,95\%C I\right)$ $0.04\sim0.38\,)^{\left[\,209,\,217\,\right]}$ ;拔管可降低革兰阴性杆菌相关CLABSI菌血症的复发率( $O R{=}0.01 $ $95\%C I$ $0.00\sim0.06\,^{\left[\,218-219\,\right]}$ ;及时拔管可改善耐药菌相关CLABSI的 病死率( $O R{=}0.11 $ $95\%C I$ 。对于非凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌CLABSI患者的亚组分析显示,晚拔管患者的病死率显著高于早拔管患者( $(P{=}0.046)^{\left\lceil\,34\,\right\rceil}$ 。而保留导管可显著增加葡萄球菌相关性血流感染的复发风险1220]
6.2问题2:临床疑诊CLABSI时,经验性抗菌治疗是否应覆盖革兰阳性球菌?
推荐意见:临床疑诊CLABSI,且患者已经发生脓毒性休克时,经验性抗感染治疗应考虑覆盖革兰阳性球菌(强推荐,中质量证据)。
推荐原理:葡萄球菌属是导致CLABSI的常见病原体[221]。大多数CoNS 普遍存在甲氧西林耐药性,因此在选择经验性治疗时应包括对此类菌株具有活性的抗菌药物。
证据分析:近期1项回顾性研究显示,在血流感染患者中金黄色葡萄球菌感染发生率为 $31.8\%^{\lceil\,221\,\rceil}$ Zhang等I222通过对纳人的15项RCT研究和9项回顾性研究进行荟萃分析发现,在金黄色葡萄球菌菌血症中,万古霉素具有较高的微生物治愈率 $O R{=}0.58\,,95\%C I $ $0.41\sim0.82\,,P{=}0.002\,,I^{2}{=}0\%\,)$ 和临床治愈率( $.O R\!=\!0.53 $ $95\%C I $ $0.42\sim0.68$ $P{<}0.01 $ $I^{2}{=}3\%$ );但与达托霉素相比,万古霉素微生物治愈率 $\scriptstyle0R=0.58,\;95\%C I $ $0.41\sim0.82$
$\scriptstyle P=0.002$ )和临床治愈率( $O R{=}0.53 $ $95\%C I$ $0.42\sim0.68$ $P{<}0.01$ )略氏
6.3问题3:临床疑诊CLABSI时,经验性抗菌治疗是否需要覆盖革兰阴性杆菌?
推荐意见:临床疑诊CLABSI时,应结合当地流行病学及高危因素经验性覆盖革兰阴性杆菌(BPS)
推荐原理:近年来CLABSI中革兰阴性杆菌 $17\%\sim25\%$ [223-224]。约 $50\%$ 革兰阴性杆菌导致CLABSI 的病原菌属于多重耐药菌[225]。因此,临床疑诊CLABSI时需经验性覆盖革兰阴性杆菌。
证据分析:我国流行病学调查显示,革兰阴性杆菌导致CLABSI常见的病原菌类型包括大肠埃希菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、鲍曼不动杆菌和铜绿假单胞菌226]。血流动力学不稳定、中性粒细胞减少或血液系统恶性肿瘤、实体器官或骨髓移植、留置股动静脉导管、革兰阴性杆菌定植数高或ICU住院时间延长的患者应考虑经验性覆盖革兰阴性杆菌。第四代头孢菌内酰胺类或碳青霉烯类抗菌药物被推荐应用于覆盖革兰阴性杆菌导致血流感染的经验性治疗[227]。超广谱β-内酰胺酶是由质粒介导的能水解青霉素类、头孢菌素及单环类抗菌药物,且能被内酰胺酶抑制剂所抑制的一类 内酰胺酶,因此对于有产超广谱 内酰胺酶病原菌感染风险或定植的患者,应避免使用氨曲南和头孢菌素[228]
6.4一问题4:临床疑诊CLABSI时,经验性抗菌治疗是否需要覆盖念珠菌?
推荐意见:临床疑诊CLABSI时,若患者合并念珠菌感染的高危因素且发生脓毒性休克时,考虑经验性覆盖念珠菌治疗(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:对于经验性抗念珠菌感染治疗决定应该综合考虑患者的基础情况,包括是否存在脓毒症、留置股动静脉导管、严重免疫功能低下(如骨髓/实体器官移植、血液系统恶性肿瘤等)消化道外科手术、多个部位念珠菌定植、是否正在接受全肠外营养或长期应用广谱抗菌药物等因素229-231]。
证据分析:1项前瞻性研究显示,念珠菌导致的CLABSI发生率在股动静脉置管中明显高于其他置管部位( $16.67\%$ EE $1.92\% $ $P{=}0.035\,)^{\left\lfloor\,232\,\right\rfloor}$ 。有研究显示,实体肿瘤( $O R\!=\!3.11 $ $95\%C I$ 全肠外营养( $O R{=}2.65 $ $95\%C I $ $1.39\sim5.06\,.$ 和和用抗厌氧菌治疗( $O R\!=\!2.22 $ $95\%C I $ $1.03\sim4.79$ 是念珠菌 CLABSI 的危险因素[23]。对于 ICU 患者,多因素Logistic回归分析显示,念珠菌感染当日的病
情严重程度〔以序贯器官衰竭评分(sequentialorganfailureassessment,SOFA)衡量」是念珠菌CLABSI的唯一潜在危险因素[234]。2012 年 Andes 等[235]针对7项RCT中的1915例患者感染水平定量评价的研究显示,棘白菌素抗真菌治疗与侵袭性念珠菌感染患者的病死率下降相关( $O R{=}0.65 $ $95\%C I$ $0.45\sim0.94 $ $\scriptstyle P=0.02$ )。经验性抗真菌治疗主要包括棘白菌素,既往3个月未接触过氟康唑的患者可根据药敏结果使用氟康唑[236-237]
6.5问题5:如何选择金黄色葡萄球菌所致CLABSI的抗菌药物?
推荐意见1:甲氧西林敏感金黄色葡萄球菌(methicillin-susceptibleStaphylococcus aureus,MSSA)导致的CLABSI考虑选择氯唑西林或头孢唑啉治疗内酰胺过敏者可使用达托霉素或糖肽类抗菌药物(强推荐,中质量证据)
推荐意见2:耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus,MRSA)导致的CLABSI考虑选择糖肽类抗菌药物(弱推荐,低质量证据)或头孢比罗治疗(强推荐,中质量证据)。
推荐原理:金黄色葡萄球菌是导致CLABSI的常见病原菌。在对MSSA所致CLABSI的治疗中,考虑到使用包括二代和三代头孢菌素的其他B-内酰胺类药物治疗MSSA存在增加病死率的风险,目前治疗药物考虑静脉用氯唑西林和头孢唑啉1238-241]此外,万古霉素作为临床常用的糖肽类抗菌药物,其治疗MSSA的体外活性和临床预后欠佳,因此并不推荐万古霉素作为 MSSA 治疗的首选用药[242]。目前MRSA所致CLABSI的标准治疗是万古霉素或达托霉素[243]。此外,头孢比罗作为新一代头孢菌素类抗菌药物,具有广谱抗菌活性,尤其是对金黄色葡萄球菌(含MRSA)
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共纳人7项在MSSA中评估头孢唑嘛与其他抗菌药物的疗效对比的研究,结果显示,头孢唑啉可显著降低病死 $.R R{=}0.35 $ $95\%C I $ $0.15\sim0.85 $ $P{=}0.02 $ $I^{2}{=}$ $89\%$ )[241,244-249]、治疗失败率( $_{,R R=0.77}$ , $95\%C I$ $0.68\sim0.86 $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001 $ $I^{2}{=}9\%$ )[241,244-249]和药物不良反应( $R R{=}0.41 $ $95\%C I $ $0.27\sim0.61 $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ $I^{2}{=}43\%$ )[241,244-248]。在 MSSA 治疗中,近期有不同研究证实氯唑西林和(或)头孢唑啉可增加治疗成功率.并可能降低病死率【241,244,250-252]
在MRSA治疗中,2020年Ye等2号31对6项研
究进行了荟萃分析,结果显示,万古霉素联合 $\upbeta-$ 酰胺可缩短菌血症病程【均数差(meandifference, $M D)=-1.06 $ $95\%C I $ $-1.53\sim-0.60 $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ 值得注意的是,有研究者通过RCT纳人了352例MRSA菌血症患者,结果发现与单独使用标准治疗(万古霉素或达托霉素)相比,标准治疗联合 $\upbeta-$ 酰胺并不能改善预后[254]。此外,经系统检索,共纳入7项对比头孢比罗与其他抗菌药物疗效的RCT研究,结果显示,头孢比罗的临床治疗成功率显著优于标准治疗[累积排序曲线下面积(surfaceunderthecumulativeranking curve,SUCRA): $68.5\%$ EC $43.4\%$ 和万古霉素治疗(SUCRA: $68.5\%$ EE. $18.0\%$ );在微生物清除率方面,头孢比罗最佳(SUCRA: $81.7\%$ 达托霉素的微生物清除率次之(SUCRA: $48.2\%$ 万古霉素最差(SUCRA: $20.1\%$ )255-261]
6.6问题6:如何选择CoNS所致CLABSI的抗菌药物?
推荐意见1:申氧西林敏感CoNS导致的CLABSI,考虑选择氯唑西林或头孢唑啉治疗(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐意见2:甲氧西林耐药CoNS导致的CLABSI,考虑选择糖肽类抗菌药物治疗(弱推荐,低质量证据)
A推荐原理:CoNS是血流感染中常见的病原菌,其中 $70\%$ 具有甲氧西林耐药性[262]。CoNS 导致CLABSI的来源通常与留置医疗设备的感染相关。对于甲氧西林敏感CoNS导致的CLABSI患者,推荐使用氯唑西林或头孢唑啉;对于甲氧西林耐药CoNS导致的CLABSI,可考虑使用糖肽类抗菌药物治疗[263]
证据分析:CoNS导致CLABSI的抗菌治疗与金黄色葡萄球菌类似。经系统检索,共纳入3项CoNS导致的CLABSI患者使用糖肽类抗菌药物的临床研究[264-266]。本指南对此进行荟萃分析发现,与万古霉素相比,其他类糖肽类抗菌药物(泰拉万欣、达巴万星和替考拉宁)具有更高的临床症状改善和治疗成功率【相对偏差(relativedeviation, $R D)=-0.14$ $95\%C I $ $-0.48\sim-0.06$ $\scriptstyle P=0.02$ 。值得注意的是,两组间不良反应发生率差异并无统计学意义( $\stackrel{}{R}D=$ 0.01, $95\%C I $ $\scriptstyle P=0.89$
6.7问题7:如何选择肠球菌所致CLABSI的抗菌药物?
推荐意见:若 内酰胺类抗菌药物敏感肠球
菌导致的CLABSI,考虑选择氨苄西林治疗,若肠球菌对于β-内酰胺类抗菌药物耐药或患者过敏,考虑使用糖肽类抗菌药物(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐原理:对于肠球菌导致CLABSI的治疗目前临床证据有限。目前观点建议敏感菌株选择氨节西林治疗。需要注意的是,氨卡西林的耐药率在以屎肠球菌为主的其他类型肠球菌中较高,考虑使用糖肽类治疗。抗菌药物的治疗疗程目前尚缺乏明确的RCT研究证实,非复杂性感染疗程建议为 $14\mathrm{~d~}^{\left[\,230\mathrm{,~}267-269\,\right]}$ 。此外,肠球菌是引起感染性心内膜炎的常见原因270」,因此存在肠球菌感染时需进行超声心动图评估是否存在感染性心内膜炎。
证据分析:肠球菌菌株的体外实验表明,氨苄西林等 $\upbeta-$ 内酰胺类抗菌药物比万古霉素更有活性,最低抑菌浓度更低[27]。1项回顾性研究评估了万古霉素与 $\upbeta-$ 内酰胺类抗菌药物对氨苄西林敏感肠球菌导致的菌血症患者预后的影响,结果显示两者 30 d全因病死率差异无统计学意义[272]。此外,1项回顾性研究证实,接受糖肽类抗菌药物治疗粪肠球菌CLABSI患者的病死率显著高于接受B-内酰胺抗菌药物治疗者( $26.1\%$ EE $11.1\%$ $\scriptstyle P=0.015.$ 同时糖肽类抗菌药物治疗是患者死亡的独立预测因素[273]
6.8问题8:如何选择革兰阴性杆菌所致CLABSI的抗菌药物?
推荐意见1:革兰阴性杆菌导致的CLABSI,需 根据药敏结果选择抗菌药物治疗(BPS)
推荐意见2:碳青霉烯类耐药铜绿假单胞 菌(carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, CRPA)导致的CLABSI,建议根据药敏情况进行治 疗。对于难治性耐药铜绿假单胞菌(difficult-to-treat resistancePseudomonas aeruginosa,DTR-PA),米用头 孢洛扎-他唑巴坦治疗(弱推荐,中质量证据)
推荐意见3:CRAB导致的CLABSI,建议使用舒巴坦制剂为基础治疗,根据药敏情况联合使用多黏菌素或替加环素(弱推荐,低质量证据)。
推荐意见4:CRKP导致的CLABSI,可考虑使用黏菌素联合替加环素治疗(弱推荐,中质量证据)
推荐意见5:产碳青霉烯酶的CRKP血源性感染,可考虑头孢他啶-阿维巴坦治疗(BPS)
推荐原理:革兰阴性杆菌导致CLABSI的发生率为 $20\%\sim25\%$ [223,274],且存在潜在的多重耐药感染风险[274-25]近期国内耐碳青霉烯类革兰阴
性杆菌(carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria,CR-GNB)治疗指南对不同病原菌治疗提出了具体的方案[276]。革兰阴性杆菌CLABSI抗菌药物的应用可参考其他感染来源导致血流感染的治疗。
证据分析:通过文献检索共纳入5项革兰阴性杆菌导致血流感染中哌拉西林他唑巴坦与碳青霉烯类抗菌药物治疗的研究[277-281],荟萃分析结果显示,哌拉西林他唑巴坦与碳青霉烯类抗菌药物在病死率( $\scriptstyle{R D=0.03\,,95\%C I} $ $-0.05\sim0.12\,,\scriptstyle P=0.46\,)$ 临床治疗失败率 $(R D{=}0.00,95\%C I $ $-0.13\sim0.14$ $P{=}0.971$ )方面差异无统计学意义。此外,通过文献检索共纳入5项革兰阴性杆菌导致血流感染中头孢类抗菌药物与其他类型抗菌药物治疗的临床研 究[277-278,282-284],荟萃分析结果显示,两组间在临床治疗成功率( $R D{=}0.02 $ $95\%C I $ $-0.07\sim0.03 $ $P{=}$ 0.38)和病死率( $R D{=}0.18 $ $95\%C I $ $-0.06\sim0.43$ $P{=}0.15$ )方面差异无统计学意义。对于CRPA导致 的 CLABSI,通过筛选共纳入3项研究[285-287],荟萃分析结果提示,头孢洛扎-他唑巴坦可显著改善病死率( $(O R{=}0.19\,,95\%C I $ $0.08\sim0.49$ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ $I^{2}{=}0\%$ )和临床治疗失败率( $O R{=}0.54 $ $95\%C I$ $0.33\sim0.88\,,P{=}0.01\,,I^{2}{=}35\%\rangle_{\circ}$ 在对1项纳人18个研究共1835例患者的荟萃分析显示,与其他药物为基础的联合治疗相比,以大剂量舒巴坦( $\mathrm{.6~g/d}$ 为基 础的联合治疗具有临床改善方面的优势( $O R\!=\!3.06$ $95\%C I $ $1.13\sim8.29\,)^{\left[\,288\,\right]}$ 。对于肺炎克雷伯菌导致的血流感染,1项纳入6个研究的荟萃分析提示,黏菌素单药与替加环素单药相比差异无统计学意义 $O R\!=\!1.35\,,95\%C I $ $0.62\!\sim\!2.97\,,\!P\!\!=\!\!0.45\,)$ ,与碳青霉 烯单药相比差异也无统计学意义( $O R{=}0.81 $ $95\%C I$ $0.27\sim2.45$ $\scriptstyle P=0.71$ );黏菌素联合替加环素与黏菌素单药相比可显著改善病死率( $O R\!=\!3.07 $ $95\%C I$ $1.34\sim7.04 $ $\scriptstyle P=0.008$ );然而,黏菌素联合碳青霉烯与黏菌素单药相比未改善病死率( $.O R{=}0.98$ $95\%C I $ $0.29\sim3.31 $ $P{=}0.98\,)^{\left[\,289\,\right]}$ 。目前仅有间接证据表明CRKP血源性感染产碳青霉烯酶,可考虑应用头孢他啶-阿维巴坦。
6.9问题9:如何选择念珠菌所致CLABSI的抗菌药物?
推荐意见1:念珠菌导致的CLABSI,考虑选择棘白菌素治疗(弱推荐,中质量证据)
推荐意见2:耐药菌株需根据药敏情况选择敏感药物(BPS)。
推荐原理:生物膜的形成是发生CLABSI的重要因素,应根据抗真菌药物对念珠菌生物膜活性的差异来选择最合适的治疗方法[290-22]。念珠菌导致的CLABSI中,棘白菌素具有很强的杀菌活性,对生物膜中的念珠菌也具有显著的抑制作用[293]。对于无法拔除导管的患者,使用对念珠菌生物膜有活性的棘白菌素和两性霉素B脂质体。但考虑到两性霉素B的不良反应,其使用仅限于对棘白菌素和唑类耐药的菌株治疗。
证据分析:通过文献检索,共有3项临床研究评估了棘白菌素类与唑类抗菌药物对临床预后的影响[294-2%],荟萃分析显示,棘白菌素与唑类相比可显著改善念珠菌菌血症患者临床治疗成功率( $R D=$ 0.13, $95\%C I $ $0.07\sim0.20 $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ 。值得注意的是,其中2项研究评估了两者对 病死率的影响,结果提示两者差异无统计学意义 $\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\$ $95\%C I $ $-0.10\sim0.01 $ $\scriptstyle P=0.13.$ )[295-296]。此外,通过文献检索,共有4项研究评估了唑类抗菌药物与两性霉素 B 对临床预后的影响[297-30],荟萃分析显示,二者在临床治疗成功率( $\scriptstyle{R D=0.04} $ $95\%C I$ $-0.10\,{\sim}\,0.03\,,P{=}0.31\,)$ 和病死率 $\left(R D\!\!\right)=\!\!-0.03\,,95\%C I$ $-0.11\sim0.04$ $\scriptstyle P=0.33$ )方面差异无统计学意义。6.10问题10:如何确定抗菌药物治疗的疗程?
推荐意见1:MRSA导致的CLABSI,考虑治疗疗程为培养阴性后14d(弱推荐,低质量证据)
推荐意见2:革兰阴性杆菌导致的CLABSI,考虑治疗疗程 $7\sim14\mathrm{~d~}$ (弱推荐,中质量证据)
推荐意见3:非复杂念珠菌血症导致的CLABSI,考虑首次血培养阴性后抗真菌治疗至少14d(强摊荐,中质量证据)。
推荐原理:仅在必要时治疗细菌感染可能是减少不必要抗菌药物使用最安全和最可行的方法。延长抗菌药物治疗时间的主要因素为降低感染复发的风险。然而,抗菌药物使用时间过长往往导致住院时间延长,增加抗菌药物耐药及药物毒性的风险,同时也会引起微生物组群失衡。证据表明,延长抗菌药物治疗时间超过某一特定值与获益无关,甚至可能是有害的。因此,明确恰当的抗菌药物疗程对于CLABSI的治疗至关重要。然而,目前尚缺乏针对CLABSI恰当抗菌药物治疗疗程的可靠数据。
证据分析:对于明确金黄色葡萄球菌导致的CLABSI,1项前瞻性队列研究对比了短期与长期抗菌治疗对此类患者临床预后的影响,结果显示,短期
抗菌药物治疗并不增加 病死率和(或) 发率: $(P{=}0.05)^{\left[\,301\,\right]}$ 。此外,1项欧洲国家进行的调查结果显示,对于无并发症的CLABSI,最小持续时被认为是合适的治疗时间302」。对于革兰阴性杆菌导致的CLABSI,既往美国感染病学会指南的抗菌药物疗程[3,236]。1项包含 4 个回顾性研究和1个RCT研究的荟萃分析结果显示,短期抗菌药物治疗( $\cdot\leqslant\!10\mathrm{~d~}$ 并不增加 全因病永率( $.R R{=}0.99 $ $95\%C I $ $0.16\sim1.43 $ 全因病死率( $.R R\!=\!1.16 $ $95\%C I $ $0.81\sim1.661$ 治愈率! $\scriptstyle(R R=1.02 $ $95\%C I $ $0.96\sim1.081$ )及复发率 $R R\!=\!1.08\,,95\%C I $ $0.69\sim1.67\,)^{\scriptstyle\left[\,303\,\right]}$ 。此外,1项回顾性研究显示,短疗程抗菌治疗效果与长疗程相当,同时不良事件更少,并且可减少耐药性风险304」。同期的1项前瞻性队列研究对短疗程! $(7\sim10~\mathrm{d})$ 与长疗程( $\cdot>\!10\:\mathrm{d}\cdot$ 抗菌药物治疗革兰阴性杆菌导致血流感染进行评估,结果显示,两组间 病死率( $14\%$ E. $10\%$ $P{=}0.31$ )、90d病死率( $\mathit{\Omega}.4\%$ EE. $3\%$ $P{=}0.66$ 和7d临床治愈率( $78\%$ EE $80\%$ $\scriptstyle P=0.79$ )差异均无统计学意义[305]。对于非念珠菌血症导致的CLABSI,基于既往比较氟康唑与两性霉素B治疗无中性粒细胞减少患者念珠菌菌血症的RCT研究结果5,297],欧洲感染和微生物学会专家组强烈推荐首次血培养阴性后继续抗真菌治疗治疗至少 $14\:\mathrm{d}^{\;\lfloor\,298,\,306\,\rfloor}$
7其他
7.1问题1:密闭输液袋相对开放输液瓶是否能减少重症患者CLABSI发生?
推荐意见:密闭输液袋相对开放输液瓶能减少重症患者CLABSI发生,推荐有条件的情况下使用密闭输液袋(弱推荐,中质量证据)。
推荐原理:开放式输液瓶为传统的玻璃/半刚性输液容器,通过通气孔使外界空气进入瓶内,以促进瓶内液体排出。由于外界空气进入瓶内可能带入病原微生物,CLABSI的风险可能增加。而密闭式输液袋不需要外部通气孔即可排出液体,理论上可减少CLABSI的风险。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,共5项研究比较了密闭式输液袋与开放式输液瓶对重症患者CLABSI发生及死亡的影响,其中1项为回顾性队列研究[307],4项为前瞻性队列研究[308-31]。2011 年Graves等[307]进行了1项多中心、大样本回顾性研究,比较了密闭式输液袋相对开放式输液瓶对CLABSI及死亡的影响,研究共纳入墨西哥和巴西
7个ICU留置中心血管导管的2531例患者,结果显示密闭式输液系统可降低CLABSI风险。2011年Maki等312对4项前瞻性队列研究进行了荟萃分析,共包含15个ICU的4373例患者,其中密闭式输液袋组2237例患者,开放式输液瓶组2136例患者,结果显示,使用密闭式输液袋后CLABSI发生率由10.1/千导管日下降至3.3/千导管日( $R R\!=$ 0.33, $95\%C I $ $0.24\sim0.46 $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ ),ICU全因病死率从 $22.0\%$ 下降至 $16.9\%$ $R R{=}0.77 $ $95\%C I$ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ ).该荟萃分析AMSTAR-2评价可信度中等。
本指南对以上5项研究进行荟萃分析,共纳人6917例患者,结果显示,使用密闭式输液系统后CLABSI发生率由21.5/千中心血管导管日下降至6.2/千中心血管导管日( $R R{=}0.29 $ $95\%C I$ $0.20\sim0.41 $ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001 $ $I^{2}{=}54\%$ ),ICU全因病死率由 $18.0\%$ 下降至 $12.0\%(R R{=}0.74,95\%C I $ $0.62\sim0.88$ ${\cal P}\!<\!0.001$ $I^{2}{=}59\%$
7.2问题2:对于珍贵导管CLABSI,拔管还是保留导管?
推荐意见:对于珍贵导管CLABSI是拔管还是保留导管,需要综合考虑重新置管的风险、管道保留情形下治疗成功的可能性及治疗失败的代价,进行个体化利弊权衡(BPS)。
推荐原理:尽快拔除中心血管导管是CLABSI的治疗原则。但在某些情况下难以找到可以替代的中心静脉穿刺点(如儿科患者、烧伤患者),或患者在抢救中无法拔管(如ECMO治疗中),因此,对于珍贵导管,保留或重新置管均可能影响患者救治成功的可能性。
证据分析:有5项研究探讨了珍贵导管保留导管情形下影响CLABSI治疗成功率的因素。2021年Ford等 ${}^{[\,313\,]}1$ 项回顾性研究纳人2010至2015年5个儿科中心的466例CLABSI非住院患者,出现血培养阳性之后, $82.3\% $ 在保留中心血管导管的基础上治疗,其中287例 $(75.7\%)$ )治疗成功;进一步分析发现,原发病为恶性疾病的CLABSI治疗成功率相对低( $.O R{=}0.51 $ $95\%C I $ $0.23\sim1.15$ $P{<}0.01$ ),隧道型导管相对PICC的治疗成功率更高 $O R{=}2.83 $ $95\%C I $ $1.21\sim6.59 $ $P{<}0.01$ ),单腔导管相对多腔导管CLABSI治疗成功率高( $O R\!=\!1.61$ $95\%C I $ $0.79\sim3.27 $ $P{<}0.01$ )。此外,有3项研究探讨了珍贵导管CLABSI治疗成功率与感染细菌
种类的关系。2024年van den Bosch 等l314回顾分析了82例儿童肿瘤或干细胞移植患者的95例次肠杆菌菌血症,其中83例次( $|87\%$ )保留导管,在这部分CLABSI患者中, $64.4\%$ 平均6d内需要拔除导管或需要转ICU治疗,其中 $2\%$ 死亡。研究者提出,鉴于这部分患者保留导管治疗失败率高,一旦诊断肠杆菌CLABSI,建议立即拔除导管。2019年Alby-Laurent等l315」回顾分析了49例儿童葡萄球菌CLABSI,其中6例为MRSA,37例保留导管进行CLABSI治疗,治疗成功率达 $68\% $ $32\%$ 治疗失败,其治疗失败与合并多种病原体感染、方古霉素浓度不达标及经验性抗菌药物使用不当有关。2014年Caroff等[316]通过回顾性研究观察了263例住家期间发生CLABSI的患者,结果显示,保留导管组(31例)CLABSI治疗复发率为 $12.9\%$ ,拔除导管组(122例)CLABSI治疗复发率为 $7.5\%$ ,两组差异无统计学意 $\scriptstyle{P=0.36}$ ,其中保留导管组4例葡萄球菌CLABSI患者均治疗成功,无复发。以上3项研究均提示在保留导管情况下,葡萄球菌CLABSI治疗成功可能性相对较大,而肠杆菌或多种病原体混合感染CLABSI治疗成功性小。
5综上所述,珍贵导管保留情形下,影响CLABSI治疗成功率的因素包括疾病状态、置入导管的类型、感染的菌株、抗菌药物治疗是否恰当;对于恶性肿瘤、多腔导管、非隧道型导管、革兰阴性杆菌感染的患者,CLABSI治疗成功率相对较低
7.3问题3:是否需要制定与执行CVC置人核查单?一
推荐意见:推荐制定与执行CVC置入核查单,加强宣传教育(强推荐,中质量证据)
推荐原理:CLABSI的发生关乎生命,其预防与治疗涉及诸多环节,包括:导管置入指征、导管类型、穿刺点选择、置管操作是否无菌、导管维护、导管能否尽早拔除等,任何一个细节的疏忽均可能导致感染的发生或治疗的失败。CVC置入核查单的执行能减少导管相关性血流感染的发生。
证据分析:经系统文献检索,最近1项大型荟萃分析及1项系统综述探讨了CVC置入核查单是否能减少CLABSI发生。2016年Ista等I317发表的1项荟萃分析比较了使用CVC置入核查单前后CLABSI发生率的变化,研究纳入1990至2015年79项高质量研究,数据分别来自成人ICU、儿科ICU、新生儿ICU及综合ICU。研究结果表明,中心血管导
管置人及维护核查清单的执行可显著减少导管相关性感染的发生( $R R{=}0.44 $ $95\%C I $ $0.39\sim0.50$ $P{<}0.000\;1 $ $I^{2}{=}89\%$ ),该荟萃分析AMSTAR-2证据质量中等。2023年Erikson等[318]的系统综述纳人2012至2023年有关CVC核查清单的8项研究,所有研究一致显示CVC核查清单的使用可减少CVC相关性血流感染的发生,其中7项研究进一步证实CVC核查清单的使用可改善患者预后。
然而以上2项研究也表明,对CVC核查清单的依从性仅约 $80\%$ ,这一现象值得关注,有必要加强对CVC核查清单执行的宣传、培训和检查319-320]。
指南制定专家组组长陈德昌(上海交通大学医学院附属瑞金医院重症医学科)
执笔人余跃天(上海交通大学医学院附属仁济医院重症医学科),李晓青(东南大学附属中大医院重症医学科),欧阳彬(中山大学附属第一医院重症医学科)
指南撰写组成员方巍(山东省立医院重症医学科),胡波(武汉大学中南医院重症医学科),李晓青(东南大学附属中大医院重症医学科),刘芬(南昌大学第一附属医院重症医学科),刘娇(上海交通大学医学院附属瑞金医院重症医学科),刘景伦(重庆医科大学附属第一医院重症医学科)刘玲(东南大学附属中大医院重症医学科)欧阳彬(中山大学附属第一医院重症医学科),尚秀玲(福州省立医院重症医学科).潘爱军(中国科学技术大学附属第一医院重症医学科),王常松(哈尔滨医科大学附属第一医院重症医学科),杨向红(浙江省人民医院重症医学科),余跃天(上海交通大学医学院附属仁济医院重症医学科),张晟(上海交通大学医学院附属瑞金医院重症医学科)
指南指导专家组成员安友仲(北京大学人民医院重症医学科),陈德昌(上海交通大学医学院附属瑞金医院重症医学科).杜斌(北京协和医院重症医学科).管向东(中山大学附属第一医院重症医学科),皋源(上海交通大学医学院附属仁济医院重症医学科)康焰(四川大学华西医院重症医学科),李维勤(东部战区总医院重症医学科),李文雄(首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院重症医学科),刘虾(山西医科大学第一医院重症医学科),马朋林(贵黔国际总医院重症医学科),马晓春(中国医科大学附属第一医院重症医学科)彭志勇(武汉大学中南医院重症医学科),钱传云(昆明医科大学第一附属医院重症医学科)邱海波(东南大学附属中大医院重症医学科),秦秉玉(河南省人民医院重症医学科),石松菁(福建省立医院重症医学科)王春亭(山东省立医院重症医学科),王洪亮(哈尔滨医科大学附属第二医院重症医学科),吴健锋(中山大学附属第一医院重症医学科).徐磊(大津市第三中心医院重症医学科)严静(浙江医院重症医学科),杨毅(东南大学附属中大医院重症医学科),于凯江(哈尔滨医科大学附属第一医院重症医学科),于湘友(新疆医科大学第一附属医院重症医学科),周发春(重庆医科大学附属第一医院重症医学科)周飞虎(解放军总医院第一医学中心重症医学科),周建新(首都医科大学附属北京世纪坛医院重症医学科),赵鸣雁(哈尔滨医科大学附属第一医院重症医学科),张丽娜(中南大学湘雅医院重症医学科),张西京(空军军医大学西京医院重症医学科)
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| 表1指南的证据质量评估 | ||
|---|---|---|
| 因素 | 评估内容 | |
| 基于 | ①高:RCT,质量升高2级的观察性研究; | |
| 方法学 | ②中:研究质量降低1级的RCT或质量升高 | |
| 1级的观察性研究; | ||
| ③低:研究质量降低2级的RCT或观察性研究; | ||
| ④极低:研究质量降低3级的RCT,质量降低1级的 | ||
| 观察性研究、病例系列观察、专家意见或其他证据 | ||
| 可能降低 | ①可获得的RCT方法学特征提示 | |
| 证据强度 | 具有偏倚的高度可能性; | |
| 的因素 | ②结果不一致,包括亚组分析的问题 | |
| ③间接证据(不同人群、干预、对照、预后); | ||
| ③具有报告偏倚的高度可能性 | ||
| 可能增加 | ①效应值较大时证据质量升高1级(直接证据, | |
| 证据强度 | RR>2且无可疑的混杂因素); | |
| 的因素 | ②效应值很大时证据质量升高2级(直接证据, | |
| RR>5且不存在影响有效性的混杂因素); | ||
| ③存在剂量-效应关系 |
| 表2决定指南的推荐等级为强或弱的因素 | |
|---|---|
| 需考虑的问题 | 推荐过程 |
| 是否具有高或 中等质量证据 | 证据质量越高,越可能成为强推荐 |
| 风险/获益及 | |
| 负担之间的 | 干预组与非干预组结果之间差异越大,差异的 确定性越好,越可能成为强推荐;净获益越小, |
| 确定性 | 获益的确定性越小,越可能成为弱推荐 |
| 越可能成为强推荐 | |
| 和相似性 取得期待获益 | 干预组成本与对照组成本相比越低(例如 |
| 的成本 | |
| 消耗的资源越少),越可能成为强推荐 |
| 表3扌指南的BPS标准 | |
|---|---|
| 疗号 | 制定标准 |
| 这个陈述是清楚和可执行的吗? | |
| 这个推荐是必要的吗? | |
| 净获益(或损害)是明确的吗? | |
| 证据难以收集和总结吗? | |
| 推荐理由是明确的吗? | |
| 比正式的GRADE方法更好吗? |
推荐意见与 GRADE 证据分级
| # | 推荐意见 | 证据等级 | 出处 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 需根据ECM0辅助方式决定血管内导管穿刺部位,静脉-动脉ECMO(veno-arterialECMO,VA-ECMO)推荐外周置管,首选左/右股静脉和左/右股动脉(BPS)。 | — | 3血管内导管相关性血流感染预防 |
| 2 | 静脉-静脉ECMO(veno-venousECMO,VV-ECMO)推荐右股静脉-右颈内静脉置管,单管双腔置管首选右颈内静脉(BPS)。 | — | 3血管内导管相关性血流感染预防 |
| 3 | 静脉-静脉-动脉ECMO(venovenous-arterialECMO,VVA-ECMO)和静脉-动脉-静 脉 ECMO(veno-arterial-venous ECMO3VAV-ECMO) | — | 3血管内导管相关性血流感染预防 |
| 4 | CRKP导致的CLABSI,可考虑使用黏菌素联合替加环素治疗(弱推荐,中质量证据) | — | 6血管内导管相关性血流感染的处理 |
| 5 | 产碳青霉烯酶的CRKP血源性感染,可考虑头孢他啶-阿维巴坦治疗(BPS) | — | 6血管内导管相关性血流感染的处理 |
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引用 / 出处
中华医学会重症医学分会. 血管内导管相关性血流感染预防与诊治指南(2025)[S/OL]. 2025.